INTRODUCTION
Description---Rice
is an annual plant with several jointed culms or
stems from 2 to 10 feet long, the lower part
floating in water or prostrate, with roots at
the nodes, the rest erect. The panicle is
terminal and diffuse, bowing when the seed is
weighty. It is probably indigenous to China, and
certainly to India, where the wild form grows by
tanks, ditches and rivers. It was early
introduced into East Africa and Syria, and later
into America, where it already appears as a
native plant. In Europe, rice was brought into
the Mediterranean basin from Syria by the Arabs
in the Middle Ages, but is now grown largely
only in the plain of Lombardy, and a little in
Spain. In England it has been cultivated merely
as a curiosity, and may be seen in the hothouses
of most botanic gardens, treated as a water
plant. The Cingalese distinguish 160 kinds,
while 50 or 60 are cultivated in India, not
including the wild form, from which the grain is
collected, though it is never cultivated. Most
kinds require irrigation, but some need little
water, or can be grown on ordinary, dry ground.
Oryza
(the classical name of the grain), or the husked
seeds, is called Bras by the Malays, and Paddy
when it is enclosed in the husk. Carolina and
Patna rice are the most esteemed in England and
the United States. The grain of the first is
round and flat, and boils soft for puddings; the
latter has a long and narrow grain that keeps
its shape well for curries, etc.
The
flour procured from the seeds is called
Oryzae Farina, or rice flour, commonly known as ground
rice. The granules of rice starch
are the smallest of all known starch granules.
A kind of spirit called Arrack is sometimes
distilled from the fermented infusion, but the
name Arrack is usually applied to Palm wine or
Toddy.
Rice
is intimately involved in the culture as well as
the food ways and economy of many societies. For
example, folklore tells us that when the Kachins
of northern Myanmar (Burma) were sent forth from
the center of the Earth, they were given the
seeds of rice and were directed to a wondrous
country where everything was perfect and where
rice grew well. Rice is an integral part of
their creation myth and remains today as their
leading crop and most preferred food. In Bali,
it is believed that the Lord Vishnu caused the
Earth to give birth to rice, and the God Indra
taught the people how to raise it. In both
tales, rice is considered a gift of the gods,
and even today in both places, rice is treated
with reverence, and its cultivation is tied to
elaborate rituals.
Chinese myth, by contrast, tells of rice being a
gift of animals rather than of gods. China had
been visited by an especially severe period of
floods. When the land had finally drained,
people came down from the hills where they had
taken refuge, only to discover that all the
plants had been destroyed and there was little
to eat. They survived through hunting, but it
was very difficult, because animals were scarce.
One day the people saw a dog coming across a
field, and hanging on the dog's tail were
bunches of long, yellow seeds. The people
planted these seeds, rice grew, and hunger
disappeared. Throughout China today, tradition
holds that "the precious things are not
pearls and jade but the five grains", of
which rice is first.
According to Shinto belief, the Emperor of Japan
is the living embodiment of Ninigo-no-mikoto,
the god of the ripened rice plant. While most
modern Japanese may intellectually dismiss this
supernatural role, they cannot deny the enormous
cultural importance of rice on life in their
country - and so it is in much of the rice
world.
Origin and Diffusion of Rice
The origins of rice have been debated for some
time, but the plant is of such antiquity that
the precise time and place of its first
development will perhaps never be known. It is
certain, however, that the domestication of rice
ranks as one of the most important developments
in history, for this grain has fed more people
over a longer period of time than has any other
crop.
The earliest settlements of those persons
responsible for domestication undoubtedly were
in areas offering a wide range of plant and
animal associations within a limited
geographical area. Such sites offered a variety
of food sources over a span of seasons to
societies dependent on hunting and gathering for
their food supply. These earliest settlements
might well have been near the edge of the
uplands, but on gently rolling topography and
close to small rivers that provided a reliable
water supply. For centuries, humans maintained
themselves by fishing in the rivers, hunting in
the forests, and gathering edible plant
products. The earliest agriculture, a simple
form of swidden, may have developed by accident
when women of the settlement recognized that the
mix of plant life growing around the midden was
especially rich in edible forms. The earliest
agriculture was probably focused on plants that
reproduced vegetatively, but the seeds of easily
shattering varieties of wild rice such as Oryza
fatua may have found their way to the
gardens at an early date.
If these assumptions are correct, then
domestication most likely took place in the area
of the Korat or in some sheltered basin area of
northern Thailand, in one of the longitudinal
valleys of Myanmar's Shan Upland, in
southwestern China, or in Assam.
Cultivated rices belong to two species, O.
sativa and O. glaberrima. Of the two,
O. sativa is by far the more widely
utilized. O. sativa is a complex group
composed of two forms endemic to Africa but not
cultivated, and a third from, O. rufipogon,
having distinctive partitions into South Asian,
Chinese, New Guinean, Australian, and American
forms. The subdivision of O. sativa into
these seven forms began long ago and came about
largely as a result of major tectonic events and
worldwide climatic changes.
It is postulated, based on measurements by
electrophoresis, that the Australian form of O.
sativa began to diverge from the main forms
about 15 million years ago. At that time, during
the Miocene, the Asian portion of Gondwanaland
collided with the Australia/New Guinea portion,
creating a land bridge across which O. sativa
migrated. Once the blocks separated, the
Australian form was free to follow an
evolutionary path somewhat different from that
followed by the O. sativa on the
mainland.
Divergence between the South Asian and Chinese
forms, the ancestors of what are commonly
referred to today as indica and japonica (or
sinica) types, is believed to have commenced 2-3
million years ago. At that time, migration of
fauna across the proto-Himalaya was still
possible, and with the animals went wild rice.
The climate was suitable for rice even in what
today is Central Asia, and north China had
almost ideal conditions.
Botanical evidence concerning the distribution
of cultivated species is based chiefly on the
range and habitat of wild species that are
believed to have contributed to the cultivated
forms. The greatest variety of such rices is
found in the zone of monsoonal rainfall
extending from eastern India through Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, northern Vietnam, and into
southern China. This diversity of species,
including those considered by many to have been
involved in the original domestication process,
lends support to the argument for mainland
Southeast Asia as the heartland of rice
cultivation.
Linguistic evidence also points to the early
origin of cultivated rice in this same Asian
arc. In several regional languages the general
terms for rice and food, or for rice and
agriculture, are synonymous. Such is not the
case in any other part of the world. Religious
writings and practices are also seen as evidence
of the longevity of rice as a staple item of the
diet. Both Hindu and Budhist scriptures make
frequent reference to rice, and in both
religions the grain is used as a major offering
to the gods. In contrast, there is no
correspondingly early reference to rice in
Jewish scriptures of the Old Testament, and no
references exist in early Egyptian records.
Archeologists have found evidence that rice was
an important food in Mohenjo-Daro as early as
2500 B.C. and in the Yangtze Basin in the late
Neolithic period (Chang 1967a).
The earliest and most convincing archeological
evidence for domestication of rice in Southeast
Asia was discovered by Wilhelm G. Solheim II in
1966. Pottery shards bearing the imprint of both
grains and husks of O. sativa were
discovered at Non Nok Tha in the Korat area of
Thailand. These remains have been confirmed by
14C and thermoluminescence testing as dating
from at least 4000 B.C. This evidence not only
pushed back the documented origin of cultivated
rice but, when viewed in conjunction with plant
remains from 10,000 B.C. discovered in Spirit
Cave on the Thailand-Myanmar border, suggests
that agriculture itself may be older than was
previously thought. No parallel evidence has
been uncovered in Egyptian tombs or from
Chaldean excavations.
Early Spread of Rice
From an early beginning somewhere in the Asian
arc, the process of diffusion has carried rice
in all directions until today it is cultivated
on every continent save Antarctica. In this
early hearth area, rice was grown in forest
clearing under a system of shifting cultivation.
The crop was grown by direct seeding and without
standing water. Rice was grown on
"farms" under conditions only slightly
different from those to which wild rice was
subject. A similar but independent pattern of
the incorporation of wild rices into an
agricultural system may well have taken place in
one or more locations in Africa at approximately
the same time. It was in China that the
processes of puddling soil and transplanting
seedlings were likely refined. Both operations
became integral pats of rice farming and remain
very widely practiced to this day. Puddling
breaks down the internal structure of soils,
making them much less subject to water loss
through percolation. In this respect, it can be
thought of as a way of extending the utility of
a limited supply of water. Transplanting is the
planting of 1- to 6- wk-old seedlings in
standing water. Under these conditions, the rice
plants have an important head start over a very
wide range of competing weeds, which leads to
higher yields. Transplanting, like puddling,
provides the farmer with the ability to better
accommodate the rice crop to a finite and fickle
water supply by shortening the field duration
(since seedlings are grown separately, and a
higher density) and adjusting the planting
calendar.
With the development of puddling and
transplanting, rice became truly domesticated.
In China, the history of rice in river valleys
and low-lying areas is longer that its history
as a dryland crop. In Southeast Asia, by
contrast, rice was originally produced under
dryland conditions in the uplands, and only
recently did it come to occupy the vast river
deltas. Migrant peoples from South China or
perhaps northern Vietnam carried the traditions
of wetland rice cultivation to the Philippines
during the second millennium B.C., and Deutero-Malays
carried the practice to Indonesia about 1500
B.C. From China or Korea, the crop was
introduced to Japan no later than 100 B.C.
Movement to western India and south to Sri Lanka
was also accomplished very early. The date of
2500 B.C. has already been mentioned for
Mohenjo-Daro, while in Sri Lanka, rice was a
major crop as early as 1000 B.C. The crop may
well have been introduced to Greece and
neighboring areas of the Mediterranean by the
returning members of Alexander the Great's
expedition to India ca. 344-324 B.C. From a
center in Greece and Sicily, rice spread
gradually throughout the southern portions of
Europe and to a few locations in North Africa.
Interestingly enough, medical geographers in the
16th century played an important role in
limiting the adoption of rice as a major crop in
the Mediterranean area. During the 16th and
early 17th centuries, malaria was a major
disease in southern Europe, and it was believed
to be spread by the bad air (hence the origin of
the name) of swampy areas. Major drainage
projects were undertaken in southern Italy, and
wetland rice cultivation was discouraged in some
regions. In fact, it was actually forbidden on
the outskirts of a number of large towns. Such
measures were a significant barrier to the
diffusion of rice in Europe.
The suspicion that ricefields cased
"mal-air" did not entirely disappear
with the end of the Renaissance. In late 1988,
the United States Environmental Protection
Agency and the National Science Foundation both
issued reports on the "greenhouse
effect" They agreed that there has already
been some warming of the earth; that
irrespective of whatever action governments may
take, the world is destined for a further
temperature increase of at least 2 oC; and that
without strong human intervention the increase
may be much greater. The greenhouse effect is
caused in large part by the release, though
human activity, of certain gases that dirty the
atmospheric window and prevent the escape of the
earth's heat to outer space.
Carbon dioxide has long been the prime suspect,
but it is now known that, molecule for molecule,
methane traps 20 times more energy. Both reports
also agree that methane concentrations are
increasing at the rate of approximately 1%/yr. A
major methane source, perhaps even the largest
of all, is flooded riceland. Not only do
methane-producing bacteria thrive in such an
environment, but rice plants themselves act as
gas vents, putting greater-than-expected
concentrations into the atmosphere. The problem
is, of course, magnified by the extension of
rice area, by the expansion of irrigation
facilities, and especially by the enlargement of
double-cropped rice areas. Ricefields are
suspected of putting 115 million t of methane
into the atmosphere each year. This is at least
equal to the total production from all of the
world's natural swamps and wetlands. Is it
possible that agricultural intensification is
hastening environmental degradation? Were the
16th century geographers on the right track
after all?
As a result of Europe's great Age of
Exploration, new lands to the west became
available for exploitation. Rice cultivation was
introduced to the New World by early European
settlers. The Portuguese carried it to Brazil,
and the Spanish introduced its cultivation to
several locations in Central and South America.
The first record for North America dates from
1685, when the crop was produced on the coastal
lowlands and island of what is now South
Carolina. The crop may well have been carried to
that area by slaves brought from Madagascar.
Early in the 18th century, rice spread to
Louisiana, but not until the 20th century was it
produced in California's Sacramento Valley. The
introduction in the latter area corresponded
almost exactly with the timing of the first
successful crop in Australia's New South Wales.
General Information Sources
To really dig into the world of rice, you could
do no better than to delve into the resources of
the IRRI
library, where there are more than 100,000
catalogued books which include, for example,
more than 100 references on the history of rice,
many in languages other than English. (Elsewhere
on the World Wide Web, there is some rice
history concerning Japan on the site of ICT
Inc.)
Rice
is an agricultural product grown in field,
harvested, processed, distributed, cooked and
served. It may sound simple but actually it is
quite complex.
Recent
Trends in the Rice Economy
|
Rice
production, area, and yield
|
1
|
Rough
rice production, by country and
geographical region
|
1961-2002
|
2
|
Harvested
area of rough rice, by country and
geographical region
|
1961-2002
|
3
|
Rough
rice yield, by country and
geographical region,
|
1961-2002
|
4
|
Rough
rice production, People's Republic of
China, by province
|
1950-2000
|
5
|
Area
planted to rough rice, People's
Republic of China, by province,
|
1950-2000
|
6
|
Rough
rice yield , People's Republic of
China, by province,
|
1950-2000
|
7
|
Rough
rice production in India, by state
|
1961-2000
|
8
|
Harvested
area of rough rice in India, by state
|
1961-2000
|
9
|
Rough
rice yield in India, by state
|
1961-2000
|
|
|
|
Import
and Export
|
10
|
Imports
of milled rice (000 t), by country and
by geographical region
|
1961-2000
|
11
|
Imports
of milled rice (million US$ cif) , by
country and by geographical region
|
1961-2000
|
12
|
Exports
of milled rice (000 t), by country and
geographical region
|
1961-2000
|
13
|
Exports
of milled rice (million US$ fob), by
country and geographical region
|
1961-2000
|
|
|
|
Food
aid
|
14
|
Rice
food aid (000 t), by donor
|
1970-2000
|
15
|
Rice
food aid (000 t), by recipient
|
1970-2000
|
|
|
|
Consumption
and calorie supply
|
16
|
Rice
calorie supply as a percentage of
total calorie supply, by country and
geographical region
|
1961-99
|
17
|
Rice
supply/utilization balances, by
country and geographical region,
selected years.
|
1964-99
|
|
|
|
World
prices
|
18
|
Monthly
export price of Thai % brokens
|
1961-2001
|
19
|
Export
prices of rice, wheat, and maize
|
1961-2001
|
20
|
World
market price of rice, selected Asian
countries
|
1961-1992
|
21
|
World
price of selected types of rice
|
1983-2000
|
22
|
FAO's
revised rice export price index
|
1982-2000
|
|
|
|
Domestic
prices (updating; available soon)
|
23
|
Government
support/procurement price of
rough/milled rice, selected countries
|
1961-2000
|
24
|
Farm
harvest price of rough rice, selected
countries
|
1961-99
|
25
|
Wholesale
price of milled rice, selected
countries
|
1961-2000
|
26
|
Retail
price of milled rice, selected
Asian countries
|
1961-2000
|
|
|
|
Land
use
|
27
|
Land
use, by country and geographical
region, selected years
|
1961-98
|
|
|
|
Irrigation
development
|
28
|
Irrigated
rice area, selected Asian countries
|
1961-99
|
29
|
Irrigated
rice area (000 ha) in India, by state
|
1969-97
|
|
|
|
Rice
ecosystem
|
30
|
Distribution
of rice crop area, by environment
|
2001
|
|
|
|
Size
of farmholdings
|
31
|
Number
of farms, by size and distribution,
selected Asian countries, selected
years
|
1961-94
|
32
|
Number
and area of farm holdings, selected
Asian countries, selected years
|
1961-93
|
|
|
|
Population,
labor force, and wages
|
33
|
Total
and agricultural population, and total
and agricultural labor force by
country and geographical region
|
1961-2000
|
|
|
|
Modern
rice varieties
|
34
|
Area
planted (or harvested) to modern
varieties, selected Asian countires
|
1965-99
|
35
|
Area
planted to modern rice varieties
India, by state
|
1966-
96
|
36
|
Area
planted to hybrid rice, People's
Republic of China, by province
|
1976-2001
|
37
|
The
most popularly grown varieties by
country, selected countries in Asia
|
1998
|
38
|
Genealogy
of IRRI bred varieties grown in
selected countries in Asia
|
1998
|
39
|
Genealogy
of locally bred varieties grown,
selected countries in Asia
|
1998
|
|
|
|
Fertilizer
and pesticide use and prices
|
40
|
Total
consumption (000 t) of fertilizer (N,P,K)
from chemical sources, by country and
geographical region
|
1961-99
|
41
|
Global
rice pesticide sales (million US$)
|
1980-96
|
42
|
Global
rice herbicide sales (million US$)
|
1980-96
|
43
|
Global
rice insecticide sales (million US$)
|
1980-96
|
44
|
Global
rice fungicide sales (million US$)
|
1980-96
|
45
|
Retail
prices (local currency/t) of nitrogen
from urea, selected countries
|
1961-99
|
46
|
World
prices (US$/t fob) of major fertilizer
raw materials
|
1961-2001
|
|
|
|
Cost
and returns (updating; available soon)
|
|
|
|
Appendix
tables
|
1
|
Wholesale
price index, selected countries
|
1961-2000
|
2
|
Consumer
price index, selected
countries,(1985=100| 1990=100).
|
1961-2000
|
3
|
Official
exchange rates (domestic
currency/US$), selected countries
|
1961-2001
|
4
|
Rice
crop calendar, by country
|
|
5
|
Milling
rates (rough rice to milled rice), by
country
|
|
6
|
Important
conversion factors, by country
|
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